History of Peru

Inca Empire

The Inca Empire (Tawantinsuyu, meaning "four regions") was formed in the 13th century around Cusco, but began to expand rapidly across western South America in the 15th century under the leadership of Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui. The empire's capital was Cusco, which the Incas considered the navel of the world.

At its greatest extent, in the early 16th century, the empire stretched from all of Ecuador to central Chile and Argentina, covering about 2 million square kilometers with approximately 10-12 million inhabitants. This was the largest pre-Columbian empire in the Americas.

The Incas were excellent builders, engineers and administrators. They built an extensive road network (Qhapaq Ñan) that was over 40,000 kilometers long and connected every part of the empire. Their bridge-building techniques, especially rope bridges, were marvelous.

The terracing agriculture system enabled them to cultivate farmland even on steep Andean slopes. They created advanced irrigation systems, networks of warehouses (qollqa) and food distribution systems that ensured the population's supply even during droughts.

The Incas did not use writing in the modern sense, instead using a knot system called quipu for counting and storing information. Their administrative system was extremely efficient, with their mit'a (labor) system providing mandatory labor from the population for state projects.

Machu Picchu, Sacsayhuamán, Qorikancha (Temple of the Sun), Ollantaytambo and many other structures are just a few examples of their impressive architecture. The Incas' stone-cutting technique was so precise that not even a knife blade could fit between the stones, and their buildings still standing today are earthquake-resistant.

The empire was divided into four parts (suyu) and had a hierarchical social system headed by the Sapa Inca, who was considered the son of the Sun.

Colonial Era (1542-1821)

In 1542, the Spanish established the Viceroyalty of Peru (Virreinato del Perú), which became the largest Spanish administrative unit in South America, extending its territory to much of present-day Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile.

Lima, founded by Pizarro in 1535 as the "City of Kings" (Ciudad de los Reyes), became the new capital and center of Spanish power. The city became an important cultural, economic and political center, where Baroque art and education flourished. In 1551, the University of San Marcos was founded, which is the oldest continuously operating university in the Americas.

During the colonial system, the Spanish introduced the encomienda and later the mita system, which was a legalized form of exploitation of the natives. The natives were forced to work in mines, plantations and construction.

The Spanish brought Catholicism and conducted intensive missionary work. They built churches, monasteries and cathedrals, often on the ruins of Inca temples. As a result of religious syncretism, native and Christian beliefs mixed.

Much of the impressive Baroque temples and palaces were built during the colonial era - the Lima Cathedral, the San Francisco monastery with its catacombs, and numerous beautiful Baroque churches in Cusco and other cities. The Cusqueña School emerged, a unique artistic style that combined European and native elements.

Peru's economy was based on the Potosí silver mines and quinine extraction. Silver flowed in huge quantities to Europe, but this brought little prosperity to Peru.

The 18th century was marked by growing discontent with the colonial system. In 1780-1781, the largest native rebellion broke out under the leadership of Túpac Amaru II (José Gabriel Condorcanqui), directed against Spanish colonial rule. Although the rebellion was brutally suppressed, this movement inspired later independence efforts.

Republican Era (1824-1900)

After independence, Peru struggled with severe economic and political crises. The country was divided among a series of caudillos (military leaders) who fought each other for power. The 1820s and 1840s represented an era of civil wars and bankruptcies.

In the 1840s and 1860s, the guano boom (bird droppings export) brought temporary prosperity to Peru. Guano was a valuable fertilizer in Europe and generated huge revenue for the state. However, this prosperity was not sustainable, and by the 1870s the guano reserves were depleted.

Between 1879-1884, Peru participated in the War of the Pacific against Chile (as an ally of Bolivia). The war ended with a catastrophic defeat for Peru. Chile occupied Lima, and Peru lost its southern territories (Tarapacá province) and valuable nitrate deposits. The war led to economic and social crisis.

After the war, under the leadership of Nicolás de Piérola (1895-1899), Peru entered the era of the Aristocratic Republic (1895-1919), during which economic stabilization and modernization began. They developed the railway network, encouraged foreign investment and exports increased.

Modern Era (1990-present)

In 1990, Alberto Fujimori, a political outsider, won the presidential election. He introduced drastic economic reforms (shock therapy) that stabilized the economy and stopped hyperinflation. In 1992, state intelligence captured Abimael Guzmán, which virtually ended Shining Path activity. However, Fujimori staged an autogolpe (self-coup) in 1992, dissolved Congress and ruled in an authoritarian manner. He was elected for a third time in 2000, but after a corruption scandal he fled into exile in Japan. In 2007, he was arrested in Chile, extradited to Peru, and in 2009 was sentenced to 25 years in prison for human rights violations and corruption.

Between 2001-2006, Alejandro Toledo became the first president of Quechua descent. Alan García (2006-2011) returned to power, followed by Ollanta Humala (2011-2016) and Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (2016-2018).

Over the past two decades, Peru has experienced significant economic growth, primarily through mining, agricultural exports and services. The country became one of the world's fastest-growing economies in the 2000s, although growth slowed in the late 2010s.

However, Peru continues to struggle with deeply rooted problems: political corruption (almost every former president in recent years faces corruption charges), social inequality, poverty in rural areas, the dominance of the informal economy, and the enforcement of indigenous community rights.

Between 2016-2020, during Martín Vizcarra's presidency, an anti-corruption campaign was conducted, but the congress dismissed him in 2020. This was followed by political instability: between 2020-2022, Peru had three presidents (Manuel Merino, Francisco Sagasti, Pedro Castillo). Pedro Castillo won the presidential election in 2021, but his chaotic governance and unconstitutional attempt to dissolve Congress in December 2022 led to his arrest and removal. Dina Boluarte, the vice president, took over the presidency, becoming Peru's first female president, but her country faces strong social division and protests.